Throwing a projectile in order to hit a target requires you to produce one lot of the set of release parameters that result in a hit; release angle, velocity (speed and direction) and height (relative to the target). My paper last year on the affordances of targets quantified these sets using a task dynamical analysis.
There is one additional constraint; these release parameters have to occur during a very short launch window. This window is the part of the hand's trajectory during which the ball must be released in order to intercept the target. It is very easy to release slightly too late (for example) and drill the projectile into the ground.
How large is this launch window? It is surprisingly, terrifyingly small; Calvin (1983) and Chowdhary & Challis (1999) have suggested it is on the order of 1ms. Those papers used a sensitivity analysis on simulated trajectories to show that accuracy is extremely sensitive to timing errors and this millisecond level precision is required to produce an accurate throw.
Smeets, Frens & Brenner (2002) tested this hypothesis with dart throwing. If this intense pressure on timing the launch window determines accuracy, then throwers should organise their behaviour and throw in a way that makes their launch window as tolerant of errors as possible. They replicated the sensitivity analyses on human data to see if people try to give themselves the maximum error tolerance in the launch, or whether they were trying to accommodate errors in other variables.
What they found is that the launch window timing is not the limiting factor. Their throwers (who were not especially expert) did not throw so as to minimise the sensitivity of the launch window timing to errors. Quite the contrary; they lived in a fairly sensitive region of the space, and then didn't make timing errors. They did throw so as to reduce the sensitivity to speed errors, however, and errors in the targeting came from errors in the spatial path of the hand that the system did not adequately compensate for, rather than the timing of the hand's release. (The authors saw some evidence that the position, speed and direction of the hand trajectory were organised into a synergy, which aligns nicely with the motor abundance hypothesis).
I would like to replicate and extend this analysis process using more detailed simulations and data from better throwers. I've become convinced it's a very useful way to think of what is happening during the throw. I also think these results point to some interesting things about throwing. Specifically, while timing and speed must both be produced with great accuracy, the system has developed two distinct solutions to coping with errors. Timing errors are reduced by evolving neural systems that can reliably produce the required precision. Speed errors have been left to an online perception-action control process which adapts the throw to suit local demands. The latter is the more robust solution; so why was timing solved with brain power?